Black Voter Suppression in the Upper Gulf Coast

 

Historical Roots and Voter Suppression in the Upper Gulf Coast of Texas

The Upper Gulf Coast region of Texas, including: Harris, Fort Bend, Brazoria, Galveston, Waller, and others surrounding counties, are home to some of the best preserved histories of African American political history in the nation. This is exemplified by events such as delayed emancipation in Galveston to current day redistricting court cases and disparities in voter turnout in the greater Houston area (Office of County Administration, 2024).

Early History and the Civil War

Before the outbreak of the Civil War, the Upper Gulf Coast had existed under a plantation economy system, especially in Brazoria and Matagorda counties, where there were more slaves than whites in population (Texas State Historical Association, n.d.). This was instrumental in laying a basis for Black politics in the area following emancipation and also served as motivation for whites to maintain control in the post-slavery period.

The most important thing that happened during the Civil War period in the region took place on June 19, 1865, when General Gordon Granger of the Union army declared General Order No. 3 in Galveston announcing the end of slavery to Texan slaves (TSHA, n.d.). This date is marked today as Juneteenth. The significance of this day was that the freedom granted to slaves did not come right away, thus, setting precedence for future discrimination against blacks.

Reconstruction and Post-Reconstruction Disenfranchisement

Black political engagement was swiftly established during the Reconstruction period. In Harris County, numerous black citizens were registered in the 1870s, and police protection had to be provided for elections because of threats to use force (Houston History Magazine, 2012). Freedmen’s Town in Houston became a hub for the Black community’s activities, with its own independent institutions, supporting the formation of politics in the area (ABC13, 2023).

Nevertheless, such advances were short-lived. In Matagorda County, the assault on the Vann Settlement, committed in 1887, shows an example of direct violence perpetrated against the Black community (TSHA, n.d.). In Fort Bend County, the convict lease, demonstrated by the findings of the “Sugar Land 95,” was a form of labor used to replace slavery (Fort Bend ISD, n.d.).

In terms of formal disenfranchisement, poll taxes, literacy tests, and white primaries were employed. The latter practice was contested in the Smith v. Allwright case that originated in Harris County. The Supreme Court ruling held that the use of racial exclusion in the process of voting was a violation of the Fifteenth Amendment (Smith v. Allwright, 1944). Although the case ended racial discrimination in primaries, it still persisted in other unspoken, but felt forms.

Political Leadership in the Twentieth Century

World War gave birth to the industrial and economic importance of the Upper Gulf Coast, especially Houston, which provided the platform for Black political leadership. Third Ward and Emancipation Park were some of the communities that served as platforms for organizing activities among the African Americans (ABC13, 2023).

This helped in developing prominent Black political leadership, with Barbara Jordan being one of them. Being elected to the U.S. Congress in 1972, she was the first Black Southern woman to be part of the U.S. House of Representatives. Her victory can be attributed to the positive effect of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 (Texas Highways, 2023).

The act provided for federal supervision of the state's voting rights by requiring preclearance and thus increased the number of registered and participating voters in Texas counties such as Harris and Fort Bend.

Upper Gulf Coast Region of Texas

Contemporary Methods of Voter Suppression: Mechanisms Specific to Counties

The contemporary methods of voter suppression in the Upper Gulf Coast employ race-neutral mechanisms, which nonetheless lead to discrimination.

In Galveston County, vote dilution constitutes the mechanism of voter suppression. The 2021 redistricting plan was found to be in violation of Section 2 of the Voting Rights Act since it diluted the votes of the Black and Latino populations (U.S. DOJ, 2023).

In Waller County, the problem of suppressing the voting rights of Prairie View A&M University students is an ongoing one. In Symm v. United States, the discriminatory practices of officials against Black student voters were raised, and such concerns still exist today (Symm v. United States, 1979).

In Harris County, the problems relate to the complexity of administration and unequal access. Although the county as a whole enjoys high levels of voter turnout, discrepancies among precincts continue, particularly in Black communities (OCA, 2024).

Voter Turnout and Structural Disparities

Recent turnout data illustrates variation across the region. In the 2024 general election:

• Harris County reported 58.84% turnout (OCA, 2024)

• Fort Bend County reported 65.43% turnout (Fort Bend County, 2024)

• Brazoria County reported 64.69% turnout (Brazoria County Clerk, 2024)

• Galveston County reported approximately 64% turnout (Community Impact, 2024)

• Montgomery County reported 68.03% turnout (Montgomery County Elections, 2024)

Although these figures indicate relatively strong overall participation, they obscure disparities within counties. Research consistently shows that turnout varies along racial and socioeconomic lines, reflecting both historical disenfranchisement and present-day barriers (OCA, 2024).

Conclusion: Education, Legal Battles, and Civic Engagement on a Local Level

The Upper Gulf Coast region is proof that voter disenfranchisement is not a static process but a dynamic system. From emancipation delayed by decades in Galveston to contemporary redistricting lawsuits and bureaucratic challenges, there is a clear discrepancy between legal rights and real accessibility.

Solving this issue will involve not only enforcing laws, especially under Section 2 of the Voting Rights Act, but also civic education and engagement at the grassroots level. It is vital to link historical events, such as Juneteenth, Freedmen’s Town, and Prairie View voting rights, to current voting methods.

In conclusion, the history of the Upper Gulf Coast proves that Black political activity was never a passive right but one that had to be won time and again.

References: 

ABC13. (2023). Freedmen’s Town and Juneteenth history.

Brazoria County Clerk. (2024). 2024 election results.

Community Impact. (2024). Galveston County turnout analysis.

Fort Bend County. (2024). Election summary report.

Fort Bend ISD. (n.d.). Sugar Land 95 historical findings.

Houston History Magazine. (2012). Reconstruction-era voting in Houston.

Montgomery County Elections. (2024). General election results.

Office of County Administration (OCA). (2024). Voter registration and participation in Harris County.

Smith v. Allwright, 321 U.S. 649 (1944).

Symm v. United States, 439 U.S. 1105 (1979).

Texas Highways. (2023). Barbara Jordan biography.

Texas State Historical Association (TSHA). (n.d.). Matagorda County and Vann Settlement entries.

U.S. Department of Justice. (2023). Galveston County redistricting decision.

Soldiers of the Houston Riot of 1917 Finally Receive Some Justice

On February 22, 2024, the Veterans Administration held a memorial service for 17 of the 19 Black soldiers unjustly court martialed and executed in the “largest mass execution of American Soldiers by the U.S. Army” following the Houston Riot of 1917. The soldiers are buried in Fort Sam Houston National Cemetery in San Antonio. Their graves were also dedicated with new headstones including names, state, rank, unit, date of death, indicating that they were honorably discharged. An interpretive sign was also placed at the gravesite telling the story of these men, and the 110 soldiers of the 3rd Battalion, 24th Infantry Regiment (also known as the Buffalo Soldiers) convicted of murder and mutiny following the riots. 

In July 1917, Camp Logan was established, in the area now known as Memorial Park, as a training ground for soldiers following the U.S. entering World War I. The all-Black 3rd Battalion, 24th Infantry Regiment was sent to guard the camp. Tensions between the soldiers, many Northerners unfamiliar with Jim Crow laws of segregation, and the all-White Houston Police Department soon ran high. On August 23rd, Private Alonzo Edwards attempted to aid a Black woman, Sara Travers, being harassed by the police. Edwards was beaten and arrested. When Corporal Charles Baltimore went to inquire about Edwards, he too was beaten and shot at while he ran away. Rumors reached camp that Baltimore had been killed. Although Baltimore was eventually found to be alive, more rumors flew of an angry white mob approaching the camp. Fear and desire for retaliation inspired soldiers to arm themselves and march toward downtown Houston. By the end of the dark, rainy night, 19 were dead (four soldiers and fifteen white civilians and police officers). 

118 soldiers were tried by the Army for mutiny and murder in a process that historians state was “characterized by numerous irregularities” including poor representation and unreliable witnesses. The Army quickly began to realize problems with the convictions. Because “the first set of executions occurred in secrecy and within a day of sentencing,” the Army immediately changed regulations so that any future executions following court martial requires a review by the War Department and the President. Ten soldiers sentenced to death were pardoned. But it wasn’t until 2022 that an investigation was opened by the Army to review the process of the trials. 

On November 13, 2023, the Army set aside all court martial convictions of the soldiers involved in the riots. Their records were corrected, their military service was designated honorable, and the entitlement to benefits by their relatives were reinstated. Secretary of the Army Christine Wormuth stated "After a thorough review, the Board has found that these Soldiers were wrongly treated because of their race and were not given fair trials. By setting aside their convictions and granting honorable discharges, the Army is acknowledging past mistakes and setting the record straight." According to Stars and Stripes “As part of the closing of [the November] ceremony, Army Brig. Gen. Ronald Sullivan read to the audience the words that will be added to the sign at Fort Sam Houston. ‘The Army viewed the cases in 2023 and determined the widespread racism and tension that triggered the 1917 Houston Riot pervaded the trials for these soldiers, making their trials unfair,’ he read. ‘The Secretary of the Army set aside all convictions and directed the soldiers’ records reflect honorable discharges.’” In December 2023, The Houston Chronicle apologized for its editorials at the time.

Grand Opening of the National Museum of African American History and Culture

The grand opening of the National Museum of African American History and Culture the weekend of September 23-25, 2016 fulfills the aspirations of Black Civil War veterans who suggested the museum in 1915 and countless others since then as discussed in the September 2016 edition of the Smithsonian Magazine. Seated prominently on the National Mall across from the Washington Monument, the museum displays over 35,000 objects collected from all over the world. The founding director, Lonnie Bunch, reveals the four pillars the museum was built on:

1. to harness the power of memory to help America illuminate all the dark corners of its past.
2. to demonstrate that this was more than a people’s journey—it was a nation’s story.
3. to be a beacon that illuminated all the work of other museums in a manner that was collaborative, and not competitive.
4. to reflect upon the global dimensions of the African-American experience.

(Read the full story at http://www.smithsonianmag.com/smithsonian-institution/definitive-story-national-museum-african-american-history-culture-came-be-180960125/#eXHRKcDrqqkTiryo.99

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If you can't visit the museum in person for the grand opening, you can still see artifacts and access videos and music online from the museum's home page. Also ABC News has posted a 360 degree-video so you can view galleries and important artifacts.