Soldiers of the Houston Riot of 1917 Finally Receive Some Justice

On February 22, 2024, the Veterans Administration held a memorial service for 17 of the 19 Black soldiers unjustly court martialed and executed in the “largest mass execution of American Soldiers by the U.S. Army” following the Houston Riot of 1917. The soldiers are buried in Fort Sam Houston National Cemetery in San Antonio. Their graves were also dedicated with new headstones including names, state, rank, unit, date of death, indicating that they were honorably discharged. An interpretive sign was also placed at the gravesite telling the story of these men, and the 110 soldiers of the 3rd Battalion, 24th Infantry Regiment (also known as the Buffalo Soldiers) convicted of murder and mutiny following the riots. 

In July 1917, Camp Logan was established, in the area now known as Memorial Park, as a training ground for soldiers following the U.S. entering World War I. The all-Black 3rd Battalion, 24th Infantry Regiment was sent to guard the camp. Tensions between the soldiers, many Northerners unfamiliar with Jim Crow laws of segregation, and the all-White Houston Police Department soon ran high. On August 23rd, Private Alonzo Edwards attempted to aid a Black woman, Sara Travers, being harassed by the police. Edwards was beaten and arrested. When Corporal Charles Baltimore went to inquire about Edwards, he too was beaten and shot at while he ran away. Rumors reached camp that Baltimore had been killed. Although Baltimore was eventually found to be alive, more rumors flew of an angry white mob approaching the camp. Fear and desire for retaliation inspired soldiers to arm themselves and march toward downtown Houston. By the end of the dark, rainy night, 19 were dead (four soldiers and fifteen white civilians and police officers). 

118 soldiers were tried by the Army for mutiny and murder in a process that historians state was “characterized by numerous irregularities” including poor representation and unreliable witnesses. The Army quickly began to realize problems with the convictions. Because “the first set of executions occurred in secrecy and within a day of sentencing,” the Army immediately changed regulations so that any future executions following court martial requires a review by the War Department and the President. Ten soldiers sentenced to death were pardoned. But it wasn’t until 2022 that an investigation was opened by the Army to review the process of the trials. 

On November 13, 2023, the Army set aside all court martial convictions of the soldiers involved in the riots. Their records were corrected, their military service was designated honorable, and the entitlement to benefits by their relatives were reinstated. Secretary of the Army Christine Wormuth stated "After a thorough review, the Board has found that these Soldiers were wrongly treated because of their race and were not given fair trials. By setting aside their convictions and granting honorable discharges, the Army is acknowledging past mistakes and setting the record straight." According to Stars and Stripes “As part of the closing of [the November] ceremony, Army Brig. Gen. Ronald Sullivan read to the audience the words that will be added to the sign at Fort Sam Houston. ‘The Army viewed the cases in 2023 and determined the widespread racism and tension that triggered the 1917 Houston Riot pervaded the trials for these soldiers, making their trials unfair,’ he read. ‘The Secretary of the Army set aside all convictions and directed the soldiers’ records reflect honorable discharges.’” In December 2023, The Houston Chronicle apologized for its editorials at the time.

Want to Help the Future Farmers of America?

During the Depression of the 1930’s, the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) was created to invigorate the economy, create paying jobs so Americans could live and support their families, and, in response to the agricultural situation caused by the Dust Bowl, revitalize farmland across the country.  Today’s farmers and ranchers again face economic difficulties and climate change realities, including devastating droughts.  Hence the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) has created another corps for today’s problems – the Working Lands Climate Corps. 

The Working Lands Climate Corps falls under the umbrella of the American Climate Corps which was founded by the Biden-Harris administration to “to train young people in high-demand skills for jobs in the clean energy economy. The American Climate Corps will put a new generation of Americans to work conserving our lands and waters, bolstering community resilience, advancing environmental justice, deploying clean energy, implementing energy efficient technologies, and tackling climate change. American Climate Corps members will gain the skills necessary to access good-paying jobs that are aligned with high-quality employment opportunities after they complete their paid training or service program.”

Specifically, the Working Lands Climate Corps will train young people to help farmers and ranchers use climate-smart agricultural practices that are also economically beneficial.  The members of the Working Lands Climate Corps will learn practical skills and create a pathway to a career in agriculture.  The first cohort will contain 100 people. 

Farmers, ranchers, and rural communities are often left behind by government programs, yet the impact of climate change disproportionately affects them.  The goals of the USDA are to transform America’s food system into a more equitable one whose workforce is representative of the nation and who can compete fairly in new and existing markets.  The agency wishes to emphasize local and regional farms and ranches that are more resilient and can provide safe, healthy, and nutritious food to all Americans using climate-smart food and forestry practices.  The agency has pledged to provide historic investments in infrastructure and clean energy capabilities to rural communities to accomplish these goals. 

Interested organizations can submit grant proposals to host workers of the WLCC cohort.  These host organizations can be “nonprofit, tax-exempt 501(c)(3) U.S. organizations, Tribal governments, units of state or local government, and special district governments. Applicants must have an active SAM.gov registration.”  The hosts will provide the WLCC workers training in “climate-smart agriculture practices, conservation and resilience planning, environmental justice, outreach with farmers and rural communities, leadership development, and more.”

The organization and running of the WLCC program will include cooperation among such government and non-profit agencies such as USDA’s Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS), AmeriCorps, The Corps Network and the National Association of ConservationDistricts (NACD). The NACD will be a major contributor to the effort because of their relationships with “conservation districts” that go all the way back to the days of the CCC.

Press Release: As part of President Biden’s AmericanClimate Corps, USDA Launches New Working Lands Climate Corps to Train FutureConservation and Climate Leaders on Climate-Smart Agriculture

Library of Congress Creates Covid-19 Oral History Project

 

Oral histories, which record the intimate perceptions of people who have gone through a significant event, are a very important part of understanding history.  The goal of oral history projects is often to record the experiences of a group of people affected before they all pass away.  Some examples of these are the Born in Slavery: Slave Narratives from the Federal Writers' Project, 1936-1938 collected by the Federal Government during the Depression, The Jeff and Toby Herr Oral History Archive held at United States Holocaust Memorial Museum which collects testimonies of Jews, Roma, Jehovah’s Witnesses, homosexuals, political prisoners, liberators, collaborators, witnesses, and rescuers, and the Vietnamese American Heritage Foundation oral history collection of a series of interviews from 2011 called "500 Oral Histories Project" (the Houston area interviews are housed at Rice University’s Woodson Research Center in Fondren Library). 

However, the closer the collection of stories can be to the time the events took place the better for time always affects one’s perspective on events.  Therefore, the Library of Congress has recently partnered with the non-profit company StoryCorps to create an archive of stories from anyone effected by the recent Covid-19 pandemic in order to record these stories as soon as possible.  These stories will become part of the American Folklife Center collections and will be made available through StoryCorps archive.  Stories may be recorded at the Covid-19 Archive Activation website. 

Librarian of Congress Carla Hayden stated “Curators and specialists at the Library of Congress are skilled at documenting history as it happens. Recording the voices and stories of Americans’ experiences with the COVID-19 pandemic for our national collections will honor this history and ensure these stories will not be forgotten. We are proud to collaborate with StoryCorps on this important work to build this archive of oral histories.”  Nicole Saylor, director of the American Folklife Center at the Library of Congress says “We are particularly interested in doing this work through people’s stories, as storytelling is a crucial medium of communication and central to the work of the American Folklife Center.”

The collection is meant to commemorate and honor those lost to the illness, those whose lives were unalterably affected by the pandemic and those who worked the front lines during the crisis.  Moreover, preserving the stories will be an essential primary source to future generations attempting to analyze and understand the events on a national level. 

Anyone and everyone are encouraged to participate in the project, for a variety of voices with a variety of experiences and a variety of perspectives will create the fullest resource from which historians, researchers, and others interested in the events can draw. 

No More Driving With Cake

You’ve probably seen a recent meme on Facebook directing drivers that, because of current winter conditions, they should “drive with cake.”  Or you’ve seen some of the Texas road signs such as “Only Rudolph Should Drive Lit” or “The Eyes of Texas Are Upon You, Buckle Up.”  These types of signs have been created by both the Texas Department of Transportation and/or the U.S. Department of Transportation to encourage drivers to be careful driving on state and federal highways. 

However, soon you will no longer be able to see these signs.  In the recently updated manual of the U.S. Federal Highway Administration , guidelines were published banning them.  Electronic signs with "obscure meanings, references to pop culture or those intended to be funny" are required to be phased out within the next couple of years and all signs must be "simple, direct, brief, legible and clear," to "relay important information."

These changes were released by the U.S. Department of Transportation on December 19, 2023 and published in the Federal Register on the same day.  (The Federal Register daily publishes changes to the U.S. Code of Federal Regulations.)  The regulations went into effect on January 18, 2024. 

Although these new regulations may make your driving experience less entertaining, the Houston Chronicle has reported that when electronic traffic signs report information other than current traffic situations or weather conditions, such as the number of fatalities on Texas roads up to a certain date, risk of traffic accidents increases. 

GovInfo Reaches Record Number of Hits

Since 1994 the Government Publishing Office or GPO (formerly the Government Printing Office) has been providing trustworthy government information online for free to anyone.  The GPO is a government agency falling under the legislative branch of government and by law provides free access to government documents produced by all three branches of government.  Until the onset of electronic access, the only way to accomplish this was through the Federal Depository Library Program whereby documents are sent to designated government libraries across the country.  Now, in conjunction with the FDLP, government information is widely available online through the site GovInfo.gov.

Last year a record number of 1.15 billion retrievals were accessed through GovInfo.  This is an increase of 32% over 2022 and an increase of 215% over 2018! The most popular source of information in 2023 was the Federal Register (the Federal Register is a daily compilation of documents produced by the Executive branch including changes to federal regulations, notices from federal agencies, executive orders and other presidential documents).

The GPO’s electronic dissemination of information began in 1994 with the creation of GPOAccess.  In 2009 the next generation system, the Federal Digital System (FDsys), was introduced.  In 2016, the current site GovInfo was launched.  But the GPO is not only assigned the duty of spreading government information; it is also given the responsibility to preserve government documents for future posterity, including those documents born digital.  In 2019 GovInfo was the first US digital depository, and the second in the world, to be certified as having the “highest global standard of excellence possible” in providing access and preservation to these important materials. 

Transition to EVs

On this date in 1996, GM announced the production and sale of it’s first mass produced electric vehicle, the EV1.  The EV1 would be produced from the fall of that year until the fall of 2003.  However, it was available only in Arizona and California and only as a lease vehicle. 

The EV1 was not the actual first electric vehicle.  Clara Ford, the wife of Henry Ford, herself drove a 1914 Detroit Electric, which got 80 miles a charge, until the mass production of gas-powered engines led by her husband drove the burgeoning electric vehicle industry out of business. 

Since 2003, all electric vehicles and hybrid gas/electric vehicles have grown in popularity in large part due to federal support of the industry.  Several US departments are involved in the funding of and financial incentives for electric vehicles and the infrastructure needed for them.  These include, the Department of Transportation (USDOT), the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA), the Federal Transit Administration (FTA), the Maritime Administration (MARAD), the Department of Energy (DOE), the Department of Agriculture (USDA), the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the Small Business Administration (SBA), the Department of Commerce (DOC), the Department of Labor (DOL), the Internal Revenue Service (IRS), and the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD). 

Some agencies may seem only tangentially connected to the shift to electric vehicles.  For example, the FAA is in charge of implementation of use of vehicles and creation of charging stations at airports while MARAD has the same responsibility at marine ports.  The USDA works with agricultural communities to transition to electric vehicles.  The FTA works specifically with transitioning public transportation, such as buses, including school buses, to EVs. 

Other agencies indirectly affect the use of electric vehicles through the support of business and commerce.  The DOC supports innovation and competition among companies in general while the SBA specifically supports small businesses in creating and supporting technology for EV infrastructure. The DOL supports research and development for the workforce in larger facilities with more workers.  HUD eases the expense of purchasing and installing chargers for renters, homeowners, and multifamily property owners.  And, of course, the IRS administers tax incentive programs for the purchase of EVs.    

Cooperation among the agencies directly involved in creation and maintenance of the infrastructure needed for implementation of a complete transfer to low or zero emission vehicles is essential and was the impetus behind the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law (BIL) which created the Joint Office of Energy and Transportation, a collaboration of USDOT and DOE.  The FHWA also works with these agencies on EV infrastructure across the US highway system.  Finally, the EPA, through its ENERGY STAR Program, develops energy efficiency specifications for charging equipment and helps the States with the purchase of ENERGY STAR certified chargers.

Information on the laws and regulations for incentives and tax credits for EVs may be found here. 

Environmental Statutes and Executive Orders Relevant to EVInfrastructure

FCC Adopts Rules to Prevent and Eliminate Digital Discrimination

Internet access and fast broadband are essential for participating in modern life.  The Covid-19 pandemic in 2020 revealed the seriousness of what was already known – that a severe “digital divide” exists in the United States.  Citizens in low economic communities, rural areas, and Tribal territories often suffer from spotty, slow, and even non-existent internet access.  Most of these historically unserved and underserved communities parallel those that suffered from the “redlining” created by the National Housing Act of 1934.  During the closure of many services during the pandemic, residents in these areas had intermittent access to educational, health and social services.  Internet was needed for online classes so that students could participate in lessons and do their homework.  Many health services were only available through telehealth medicine.  Social services, such as applying for financial assistance or accessing information, were only available with computer access.  Job searches moved to being mostly online.  Cell phone usage was not reliable enough for people to accomplish the tasks they needed to do.

Therefore, in November of 2021, Congress passed the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law.  This law invested $65 billion dollars in universal broadband access which would make the internet both available and affordable, especially in those underserved areas.  Section 60506 of the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law states that “[i]t is the policy of the United States that, insofar as technically and economically feasible, subscribers should benefit from equal access to broadband.”  The law then directs the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) to “adopt rules to facilitate equal access to broadband internet access service” that “[prevent] digital discrimination of access based on income level, race, ethnicity, color, religion, or national origin; and [identify] necessary steps for the Commission to take to eliminate discrimination.”  Two years later, on November 15, 2023, the FCC officially adopted these rules.  Chairwoman Rosenworcel and Commissioners Starks and Gomez wrote individual statements in support of the rules while Commissioners Carr and Simington both issued dissenting statements.

These FCC rules define “digital discrimination of access” as “policies or practices, not justified by genuine issues of technical or economic feasibility, that differentially impact consumers’ access to broadband internet access service based on their income level, race, ethnicity, color, religion or national origin, or are intended to have such differential impact.” These impacts can arise from discriminatory intent, or they can be unintentional but still have a discriminatory effect.  The rules do take into account cost to the providers for delivering services as well as their technological ability to do so.  In general, the standard for these feasibilities is whether other, similar providers are able to serve these areas at the same level and at a more reasonable price. 

The source for the Congress’s and the FCC’s commitment to universal access is rooted in the Communications Act of 1934, which addressed wire and radio communication, and the Telecommunications Act of 1996, which expanded the law to include telecommunications.

The text of the report and rules, as well as the statements of the commissioners can be found here.